Review
DOI DOI: 10.62063/rev-28

Ink-based disposable electrodes: Versatile analytical platforms for point-of-need applications

Gilberto José Silva Junior1, Rodrigo Marcelo Ramos1, William Barros Veloso1, Lauro Antonio Pradela Filho1, Thiago Regis Longo Cesar da Paixão1
  1. 1 Universidade de São Paulo

Abstract

Ink-based disposable electrodes are emerging as promising technologies in analytical chemistry, driven by the increasing demand for on-site analysis in medical, food, and environmental sectors. Their widespread adoption is attributed to their low cost and easy fabrication. Additionally, such devices can provide fast and reliable results, making them valuable analytical tools for unprivileged communities and remote areas. This review focuses specifically on the fabrication of disposable electrodes using ink-based techniques, including stencil/screen printing and inkjet printing. It begins with an overview of ink formulation, highlighting the role of raw materials and the importance of their control in electrode fabrication processing. Subsequently, the principles, advantages, and limitations of each printing technique are discussed, demonstrating the potential and versatility of the resulting sensors in diverse analytical applications. Therefore, this work provides comprehensive insights into the fabrication of ink-based electrodes, aiming not only to consolidate the state of the art but also to encourage new approaches and technological advances in the development of accessible, versatile, and effective electrochemical sensors.

How to Cite

Silva Junior, G. J., Ramos, R. M., Barros Veloso, W., Pradela Filho, L. A., & Longo Cesar da Paixão, T. R. (2026). Ink-based disposable electrodes: Versatile analytical platforms for point-of-need applications. EUCHEMBIOJ Reviews, 2(1), e26002. https://doi.org/10.62063/rev-28
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS) BibTeX

References

  1. Adkins, J., Boehle, K., & Henry, C. (2015). Electrochemical paper-based microfluidic devices. Electrophoresis, 36(16), 1811–1824. https://doi.org/10.1002/elps.201500084
  2. Akiiga, N. S., Rashad Fath El-Bab, A. M., Yoshihisa, M., & El-Moneim, A. A. (2025). Enzyme-Free glucose detection in sweat using 2D inkjet-printed cobalt sulfide anchored on graphene in a paper-based microfluidic device. Journal of colloid and interface science, 688, 490–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2025.02.129
  3. Akindoyo, J. O., Ismail, N. H., & Mariatti, M. (2021). Development of environmentally friendly inkjet printable carbon nanotube‐based conductive ink for flexible sensors: effects of concentration and functionalization. Journal of materials science: Materials in electronics, 32(9), 12648–12660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-021-05900-y
  4. Aliyeva, P., Yilmaz, B., Uzunarslan, D. A., & Enisoglu Atalay, V. (2025). Identification of new candidate molecules against SARS-CoV-2 through docking studies. The European chemistry and biotechnology journal, 4, 14–23. https://doi.org/10.62063/ecb-40
  5. Anushka, B.A., & Das, P. K. (2023). Paper based microfluidic devices: a review of fabrication techniques and applications. European physical journal: Special topics, 232(6), 781–815. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjs/s11734-022-00727-y
  6. Araújo, D. A. G., Oliveira, A. C. M., Pradela-Filho, L. A., Takeuchi, R. M., & Santos, A. L. (2021). A novel miniaturized electroanalytical device integrated with gas extraction for the voltammetric determination of sulfite in beverages. Analytica chimica acta, 1185, 339067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2021.339067
  7. Asif, I. M., Giulio, T. Di, Gagliani, F., Mazzotta, E., & Malitesta, C. (2025). Advances in the Direct Nanoscale Integration of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers ( MIPs ) with Transducers for the Development of High-Performance Nanosensors. Biosensors, 15(8), 509. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15080509
  8. Ataide, V. N., Mendes, L. F., Gama, L. I. L. M., R.Araujo, W., & Paixão, T. R. L. C. (2020). Electrochemical paper-based analytical devices: ten years of development. Analytical methods, 12(8), 1030–1054. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ay02350j
  9. Ataide, V. N., Pradela-Filho, L. A., Ameku, W. A., Negahdary, M., Oliveira, T. G., Santos, B. G., Paixão, T. R. L. C., & Angnes, L. (2023). Paper-based electrochemical biosensors for the diagnosis of viral diseases. Microchimica acta, 190(7). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-023-05856-2
  10. Barich, H., Voet, O., Sleegers, N., Schram, J., Felipe Montiel, N., Beltran, V., Nuyts, G., & De Wael, K. (2024). Selecting optimal carbon inks for fabricating high-performance screen-printed electrodes for diverse electroanalytical applications. Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, 971, 118585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2024.118585
  11. Berkel, C., & Özbek, O. (2024). Green Electrochemical Sensors, Their Applications and Greenness Metrics Used: A Review. Electroanalysis, 36(11), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.202400286
  12. Bi, S., Dong, W., Lan, B., Zhao, H., Hou, L., Zhu, L., Xu, Y., & Lu, Y. (2019). Flexible carbonic pen ink/carbon fiber paper composites for multifunctional switch-type sensors. Composites part A: Applied science and manufacturing, 124, 105452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.05.020
  13. Bi, S., Hai, W., Wang, L., Xu, K., Chen, Q., Chen, C., Yu, Q., Chen, C., Li, M., Shao, H., Shao, G., Jiang, J., & Chen, N. (2023). Green One-Step Strategy of Conductive Ink for Active Health Monitoring in Rehabilitation and Early Care. ACS applied materials and interfaces, 15, 57593−57601. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c12851
  14. Boček, Ž., Zubak, M., & Kassal, P. (2025). Fully Inkjet-Printed Flexible Graphene–Prussian Blue Platform for Electrochemical Biosensing. Biosensors, 15(1), 7–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios15010028
  15. Boumegnane, A., Nadi, A., Cochrane, C., Boussu, F., Cherkaoui, O., & Tahiri, M. (2022). Formulation of conductive inks printable on textiles for electronic applications: a review. Textile progress, 54(2), 103–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405167.2021.2094135
  16. Bouzidi, K., Chaussy, D., Gandini, A., Flahaut, E., Bongiovanni, R., & Beneventi, D. (2022). Bio-based formulation of an electrically conductive ink with high potential for additive manufacturing by direct ink writing. Composites science and technology, 230(P1), 109765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2022.109765
  17. Bucciarelli, A., Olivetti, E., Adami, A., & Lorenzelli, L. (2021). Design of Experiment Rational Optimization of an Inkjet Deposition of Silver on Kapton. IEEE sensors journal, 21(23), 26304–26310. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2021.3058543
  18. Cagnani, G. R., Ibáñez-Redín, G., Tirich, B., Gonçalves, D., Balogh, D. T., & Oliveira, O. N. (2020). Fully-printed electrochemical sensors made with flexible screen-printed electrodes modified by roll-to-roll slot-die coating. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 165, 112428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2020.112428
  19. Calvert, P. (2001). Inkjet printing for materials and devices. Chemistry of materials, 13(10), 3299–3305. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm0101632
  20. Camargo, J. R., Orzari, L. O., Araújo, D. A. G., de Oliveira, P. R., Kalinke, C., Rocha, D. P., Luiz dos Santos, A., Takeuchi, R. M., Munoz, R. A. A., Bonacin, J. A., & Janegitz, B. C. (2021). Development of conductive inks for electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Microchemical journal, 164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2021.105998
  21. Camargo, J. R., Orzari, L. O., de Souza Rodrigues, J., Felipe de Lima, L., Longo Cesar Paixão, T. R., Fraceto, L. F., & Janegitz, B. C. (2024). Advancements in disposable electrochemical systems for sustainable agriculture monitoring: Trends, gaps, and applied examples. TrAC - Trends in analytical chemistry, 180, 117968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2024.117968
  22. Camargo, J.R., Crapnell, R. D., Bernalte, E., Janegitz, B. C., & Banks, C. E. (2025). Water-Based Conductive Ink for the Production of Carbon Black Screen-Printed Electrodes and the Detection of Tryptophan. ACS applied electronic materials, 7(12), 5599–5610. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.5c00550
  23. Campos-Arias, L., Peřinka, N., Lau, Y. C., Castro, N., Pereira, N., Correia, V. M. G., Costa, P., Vilas-Vilela, J. L., & Lanceros-Mendez, S. (2024). Improving Definition of Screen-Printed Functional Materials for Sensing Application. ACS applied electronic materials, 6(4), 2152–2160. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.3c01415
  24. Cardoso, R. M., Castro, S. V. F., Silva, M. N. T., Lima, A. P., Santana, M. H. P., Nossol, E., Silva, R. A. B., Richter, E. M., Paixão, T. R. L. C., & Muñoz, R. A. A. (2019). 3D-printed flexible device combining sampling and detection of explosives. Sensors and actuators, B: Chemical, 292, 308–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.04.126
  25. Carvalho, J. H. S., Stefano, J. S., Brazaca, L. C., & Janegitz, B. C. (2023). New conductive ink based on carbon nanotubes and glass varnish for the construction of a disposable electrochemical sensor. Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, 937, 117428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2023.117428
  26. Ceylan, E., Gurbuz, H. N., Kotan, H., & Uzunoglu, A. (2025). Inkjet-printed flexible electrochemical sensors based on palladium and silver-decorated, N-doped holey graphene and nano graphene. Microchemical journal, 209, 112682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2025.112682
  27. Coltro, W. K. T., & Janegitz, B. C. (2025). Screen-Printing vs Additive Manufacturing Approaches: Recent Aspects and Trends Involving the Fabrication of Electrochemical Sensors. Analytical chemistry, 97, 1482–1494. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c05786
  28. Costa, N. G., Buga, C. S., Homem, N. C., Paleo, A. J., Sencadas, V., Viana, J. C., Gonzales, A., Antunes, J. C., & Rocha, A. M. (2025). Screen-printed textile substrates’ suitability as a platform for electrochemical sensors’ construction. Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, 976, 118805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2024.118805
  29. Crapnell, R. D., & Banks, C. E. (2024). Electroanalytical Overview: Screen-Printed Electrochemical Sensing Platforms. ChemElectroChem, 11(19), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.202400370
  30. da Silva, G. O., de Araujo, W. R., & Paixão, T. R. L. C. (2018). Portable and low-cost colorimetric office paper-based device for phenacetin detection in seized cocaine samples. Talanta, 176, 674–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.08.082
  31. Dai, Y., Chiu, L. Y., Sui, Y., Dai, Q., Penumutchu, S., Jain, N., Dai, L., Zorman, C. A., Tolbert, B. S., Sankaran, R. M., & Liu, C. C. (2019). Nanoparticle based simple electrochemical biosensor platform for profiling of protein-nucleic acid interactions. Talanta, 195, 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2018.11.021
  32. de Freitas, R. C., Camargo, J. R., Brazaca, L. C., Angnes, L., Fatibello-Filho, O., & Janegitz, B. C. (2026). Eco-friendly screen-printed sensor using tapioca-based conductive ink modified with coconut fibers. Talanta, 298, 128875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2025.128875
  33. de Freitas, R. C., Fonseca, W. T., Azzi, D. C., Raymundo-Pereira, P. A., Oliveira, O. N., & Janegitz, B. C. (2023). Flexible electrochemical sensor printed with conductive ink made with craft glue and graphite to detect drug and neurotransmitter. Microchemical journal, 191, 108823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2023.108823
  34. de Lima, L. F., Corsato, P. C. R., Beluomini, M. A., Ferreira, A. L., Esterdos Santos, L., Barbosa, P. P., Simeoni, C. L., de Jesus, M. B., Proenca-Modena, J. L., Paixão, T. R. L. C., & de Araujo, W. R. (2025). Smart Textile Electrochemical Capacitive Biosensor for Real-Time Monkeypox Virus Detection. ACS applied electronic materials, 7(7), 2882–2893. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.5c00055
  35. de Matos Morawski, F., Martins, G., Ramos, M. K., Zarbin, A. J. G., Blanes, L., Bergamini, M. F., & Marcolino-Junior, L. H. (2023). A versatile 3D printed multi-electrode cell for determination of three COVID-19 biomarkers. Analytica chimica acta, 1258, 341169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2023.341169
  36. Deroco, P. B., Junior, D. W., & Kubota, L. T. (2021). Silver inkjet-printed electrode on paper for electrochemical sensing of paraquat. Chemosensors, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors9040061
  37. Dungchai, W., Chailapakul, O., & Henry, C. S. (2009). Electrochemical detection for paper-based microfluidics. Analytical chemistry, 81(14), 5821–5826. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac9007573
  38. Facure, M. H. M., Braunger, M. L., Mercante, L. A., Paterno, L. G., Riul, A., & Correa, D. S. (2022). Electrical Impedance-Based Electronic Tongues. In Encyclopedia of Sensors and Biosensors, First Edition, Four Volume Set (Vol. 3). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822548-6.00091-1
  39. Fernandes, I. J., Aroche, A. F., Schuck, A., Lamberty, P., Peter, C. R., Hasenkamp, W., & Rocha, T. L. A. C. (2020). Silver nanoparticle conductive inks: synthesis, characterization, and fabrication of inkjet-printed flexible electrodes. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-65698-3
  40. Ferreira, B., Arantes, I. V. S., Gongoni, J. L. M., Pradela-Filho, L. A., & Paixão, T. R. L. C. (2024). Stencil-printed graphene electrodes for affordable electrochemical sensing of capsaicin. Microchemical journal, 207, 112197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2024.112197
  41. Gomez-Gijon, S., Ortiz-Gómez, I., & Rivadeneyra, A. (2025). Paper-Based Electronics: Toward Sustainable Electronics. Advanced sustainable systems, 9(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202400486
  42. Gopalakrishnan, S., Mall, D., Pushpavanam, S., & Karmakar, R. (2025). Rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing using carbon screen printed electrodes in a microfluidic device. Scientific reports, 15(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-84286-3
  43. Hatala, M., Gemeiner, P., Hvojnik, M., & Mikula, M. (2019). The effect of the ink composition on the performance of carbon-based conductive screen printing inks. Journal of materials science: materials in electronics, 30(2), 1034–1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-018-0372-7
  44. Hemdan, M., Abuelhaded, K., Shaker, A. A. S., Ashour, M. M., Abdelaziz, M. M., Dahab, M. I., Nassar, Y. A., Sarguos, A. M. M., Zakaria, P. S., Fahmy, H. A., Abdel Mageed, S. S., Hamed, M. O. A., Mubarak, M. F., Taher, M. A., Gumaah, N. F., & Ragab, A. H. (2025). Recent advances in nano-enhanced biosensors: Innovations in design, applications in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food safety, and emerging research challenges. Sensing and bio-sensing research, 48, 100783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbsr.2025.100783
  45. Hosseini, Z., Shi, D., & Yuan, J. (2025). A flexible multiplexed electrochemical biosensing platform with graphene and gold nanoparticle modification for enhanced e-ELISA point-of-care biomarker detection. Microchemical journal, 208, 112437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2024.112437
  46. Islam, N., Das, M., Johan, B. A., Shah, S. S., Alzahrani, A. S., & Aziz, M. A. (2025). Multifunctional Screen-Printed Conductive Inks: Design Principles, Performance Challenges, and Application Horizons. ACS applied electronic materials. 7(16), 7503–7544. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.5c01256
  47. Jia, L. C., Zhou, C. G., Sun, W. J., Xu, L., Yan, D. X., & Li, Z. M. (2020). Water-based conductive ink for highly efficient electromagnetic interference shielding coating. Chemical engineering journal, 384, 123368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.123368
  48. Kalligosfyri, P. M., Miglione, A., Esposito, A., Alhardan, R., Iula, G., Atay, I., Darwish, I. A., Kurbanoglu, S., & Cinti, S. (2025). Flexible Screen-Printed Electrochemical Sensor for Alkaline Phosphatase Detection in Biofluids for Biomedical Applications. ChemistryOpen, 14(6), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/open.202500113
  49. Keshavarz, S. (Mohammadmahdi), Inanlu, M. J., Omidfar, K., & Bazargan, V. (2025). Advances in microfluidic technologies for antibody separation and detection: toward enhanced diagnostics and therapeutic applications. Microchemical journal, 214, 114061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2025.114061
  50. Killard, A. J. (2017). Disposable sensors. Current opinion in electrochemistry, 3(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2017.06.013
  51. Kongkaew, S., Tubtimtong, S., Thavarungkul, P., Kanatharana, P., Chang, K. H., Abdullah, A. F. L., & Limbut, W. (2022). A Fabrication of Multichannel Graphite Electrode Using Low-Cost Stencil-Printing Technique. Sensors, 22(8), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22083034
  52. Leite, V. A. R., Oliveira, S. P. de, Souza, L. C. de, Silva, L. J. de P., Silva, L. F., Cândido, T. C. de O., Silva, D. N. da, & Pereira, A. C. (2025). Development of Novel Conductive Inks for Screen-Printed Electrochemical Sensors: Enhancing Rapid and Sensitive Drug Detection. Analytica, 6(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/analytica6010003
  53. Li, H., Wang, S., Dong, X., Ding, X., Sun, Y., Tang, H., Lu, Y., Tang, Y., & Wu, X. (2022). Recent advances on ink-based printing techniques for triboelectric nanogenerators: Printable inks, printing technologies and applications. Nano energy, 101, 107585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107585
  54. Li, W., & Chen, M. (2014). Synthesis of stable ultra-small Cu nanoparticles for direct writing flexible electronics. Applied surface science, 290, 240–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.11.057
  55. Li, W., Sun, Q., Li, L., Jiu, J., Liu, X. Y., Kanehara, M., Minari, T., & Suganuma, K. (2020). The rise of conductive copper inks: challenges and perspectives. Applied materials today, 18, 100451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2019.100451
  56. Manjushree, S. G., & Adarakatti, P. S. (2023). Recent Advances in Disposable Electrochemical Sensors [Chapter]. ACS Symposium Series, 1437, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1021/bk-2023-1437.ch001
  57. Miglione, A., Spinelli, M., Amoresano, A., & Cinti, S. (2022). Sustainable Copper Electrochemical Stripping onto a Paper-Based Substrate for Clinical Application. ACS measurement science au, 2(2), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.1c00059
  58. Milic, L., Zambry, N. S., Ibrahim, F., Petrovic, B., Kojic, S., Laszczyk, K., Jamaluddin, N. F., Shalauddin, M., Basirun, W. J., & Stojanovic, G. M. (2025). Flexible Screen-Printed Carbon-Based Electrode Functionalized with Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes for Portable Point-of-Care pH Sensing. IEEE sensors journal, 25(4), 6025–6034. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2024.3522569
  59. Murvanidze, I., Nakashidze, I., Gogitidze, T., Jahja, E., Shaikh, A. P., Tebidze, N., Shaikh, N. P., Kakabadze, B., Resulidze, M., Khurana, R., Saralidze, E., Tsetskhladze, O., Baratashvili, D., Kedelidze, N., Peshkova, T., & Nakashidze, I. (2025). Correlation of ferritin, D-dimer, and CRP with disease severity and outcome in COVID-19 patients. The European chemistry and biotechnology journal, 39(4), 24–39. https://doi.org/10.62063/ecb-59
  60. Na, W., Lee, J., Jun, J., Kim, W., Kim, Y. K., & Jang, J. (2019). Highly sensitive copper nanowire conductive electrode for nonenzymatic glucose detection. Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry, 69, 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.09.050
  61. Nageib, A. M., Halim, A. A., Nordin, A. N., & Ali, F. (2023). Recent Applications of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) on Screen-Printed Electrodes for Pesticide Detection. Journal of electrochemical science and technology, 14(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.33961/jecst.2022.00654
  62. Nayak, L., Mohanty, S., Nayak, S. K., & Ramadoss, A. (2019). A review on inkjet printing of nanoparticle inks for flexible electronics. Journal of materials chemistry C, 7(29), 8771–8795. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9tc01630a
  63. Nie, Z., Nijhuis, C. A., Gong, J., Chen, X., Kumachev, A., Martinez, A. W., Narovlyansky, M., & Whitesides, G. M. (2010). Electrochemical sensing in paper-based microfluidic devices. Lab on a chip, 10(4), 477–483. https://doi.org/10.1039/b917150a
  64. Novais, A. dos S., Ribeiro, D. G., Melo, L. M. de A., Ferrari Júnior, E., Arantes, L. C., Lucca, B. G., de Melo, E. I., Brocenschi, R. F., dos Santos, W. T. P., & da Silva, R. A. B. (2024). Simple, Miniaturized, Adaptable, Robust and Transportable (SMART) 3D-printed electrochemical cell: A friendly tool for on-site and forensic analysis. Sensors and actuators B: Chemical, 398, 134667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2023.134667
  65. Novakowski, W., Bertotti, M., & Paixão, T. R. L. C. (2011). Use of copper and gold electrodes as sensitive elements for fabrication of an electronic tongue: Discrimination of wines and whiskies. Microchemical journal, 99(1), 145–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2011.04.012
  66. Noviana, E., McCord, C. P., Clark, K. M., Jang, I., & Henry, C. S. (2020). Electrochemical paper-based devices: Sensing approaches and progress toward practical applications. Lab on a chip, 20(1), 9–34. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9lc00903e
  67. Ozer, T., & Henry, C. S. (2021). Paper-based analytical devices for virus detection: Recent strategies for current and future pandemics. TrAC - Trends in analytical chemistry, 144, 116424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2021.116424
  68. Pattan-Siddappa, G., Elugoke, S. E., Erkmen, C., Kim, S. Y., & Ebenso, E. E. (2025). Flexible carbon cloth electrode: pioneering the future of electrochemical sensing devices. Advanced composites and hybrid materials, 8, 263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42114-025-01338-6
  69. Pradela-Filho, L. A., Araújo, D. A. G., Takeuchi, R. M., & Santos, A. L. (2017). Nail polish and carbon powder: An attractive mixture to prepare paper-based electrodes. Electrochimica acta, 258, 786–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2017.11.127
  70. Pradela-Filho, L. A., Andreotti, I. A. A., Carvalho, J. H. S., Araújo, D. A. G., Orzari, L. O., Gatti, A., Takeuchi, R. M., Santos, A. L., & Janegitz, B. C. (2020). Glass varnish-based carbon conductive ink: A new way to produce disposable electrochemical sensors. Sensors and actuators, B: chemical, 305, 127433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.127433
  71. Pradela-Filho, L. A., Veloso, W. B., Arantes, I. V. S., Gongoni, J. L. M., de Farias, D. M., Araujo, D. A. G., & Paixão, T. R. L. C. (2023a). Paper-based analytical devices for point-of-need applications. Microchimica acta, 190(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00604-023-05764-5
  72. Pradela-Filho, L. A., Gongoni, J. L. M., Arantes, I. V. S., de Farias, D. M., & Paixão, T. R. L. C. (2023b). Controlling the Inkjet Printing Process for Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors. Advanced materials technologies, 8(8), 2201729. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202201729
  73. Qi, X., Luo, J., Liu, H., Fan, S., Ren, Z., Wang, P., Yu, S., & Wei, J. (2025). Flexible Strain Sensors Based on Printing Technology: Conductive Inks, Substrates, Printability, and Applications. Materials, 18(2113), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18092113
  74. Rasmi, Y., Li, X., Khan, J., Ozer, T., & Choi, J. R. (2021). Emerging point-of-care biosensors for rapid diagnosis of COVID-19: current progress, challenges, and future prospects. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, 413(16), 4137–4159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-021-03377-6
  75. Rosati, G., Urban, M., Zhao, L., Yang, Q., de Carvalho Castro e Silva, C., Bonaldo, S., Parolo, C., Nguyen, E. P., Ortega, G., Fornasiero, P., Paccagnella, A., & Merkoçi, A. (2022). A plug, print & play inkjet printing and impedance-based biosensing technology operating through a smartphone for clinical diagnostics. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 196, 113737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113737
  76. Rossetti, M., Srisomwat, C., Urban, M., Rosati, G., Maroli, G., Yaman Akbay, H. G., Chailapakul, O., & Merkoçi, A. (2024). Unleashing inkjet-printed nanostructured electrodes and battery-free potentiostat for the DNA-based multiplexed detection of SARS-CoV-2 genes. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 250, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2024.116079
  77. Saidina, D. S., Eawwiboonthanakit, N., Mariatti, M., Fontana, S., & Hérold, C. (2019). Recent Development of Graphene-Based Ink and Other Conductive Material-Based Inks for Flexible Electronics. Journal of electronic materials, 48(6), 3428–3450. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11664-019-07183-w
  78. Sandry, C. T., Shila, S., Gonzalez-Jimenez, L., Martinez, S., & Sekhar, P. K. (2023). Progress in Inkjet-Printed Sensors and Antennas. Electrochemical society interface, 32(4), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.F12234IF
  79. Saquib, M., Shetty, S., M, L., Rathod, A., Naik, K., Nayak, R., & Selvakumar, M. (2025). Challenges in carbon ink formulation and strategies for fabrication of flexible supercapacitors. Carbon trends, 19, 100458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cartre.2025.100458
  80. Seddaoui, N., Di Gregorio, C., Gullo, L., Argiriadis, E., & Arduini, F. (2025). A paper-based screen-printed electrochemical sensor combined with a 3D printed extracting cartridge for analysis of phosphorus in Antarctic lacustrine sediments. Talanta, 289, 127749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2025.127749
  81. Senturk, H., Erdem, A., & Prodromidis, M. I. (2025). In place modification of graphite screen-printed electrodes with spark generated copper nanoparticles for creatinine sensing. Microchemical journal, 209, 112875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2025.112875
  82. Setti, L., Fraleoni-Morgera, A., Ballarin, B., Filippini, A., Frascaro, D., & Piana, C. (2005). An amperometric glucose biosensor prototype fabricated by thermal inkjet printing. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 20(10 SPEC. ISS.), 2019–2026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2004.09.022
  83. Shen, Y., Hou, S., Hao, D., Zhang, X., Lu, Y., Zu, G., & Huang, J. (2021). Food-Based Highly Sensitive Capacitive Humidity Sensors by Inkjet Printing for Human Body Monitoring. ACS applied electronic materials, 3(9), 4081–4090. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaelm.1c00570
  84. Silva, F. W. L., Bernardino, C. A. R., Ferreira, J. H. A., Mahler, C. F., Santelli, R. E., Canevari, T. C., & Cincotto, F. H. (2024). Disposable electrochemical sensor: Highly sensitive determination of nitrofurazone antibiotic in environmental samples and pharmaceutical formulations. Chemosphere, 361, 142481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142481
  85. Silveri, F., Della Pelle, F., & Compagnone, D. (2025). Recent advances in sustainable strategies for the integration of nanostructured sensing surfaces in electroanalytical devices. TrAC - Trends in analytical chemistry, 185, 118175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2025.118175
  86. Smith, S., Korvink, J. G., Mager, D., & Land, K. (2018). The potential of paper-based diagnostics to meet the ASSURED criteria. RSC advances, 8(59), 34012–34034. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8RA06132G
  87. Stefano, J. S., Orzari, L. O., Silva-neto, H. A., Ataíde, V. N. De, Mendes, L. F., Karlos, W., Coltro, T., Regis, T., Cesar, L., & Janegitz, B. C. (2022). Electrochemistry Different approaches for fabrication of low-cost electrochemical sensors. Current opinion in electrochemistry, 32, 100893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2021.100893
  88. Stradiotto, N. R., Yamanaka, H., & Zanoni, M. V. B. (2003). Electrochemical sensors: A powerful tool in analytical chemistry. Journal of the brazilian chemical society, 14(2), 159–173. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-50532003000200003
  89. Sui, Y., Dai, Y., Liu, C. C., Sankaran, R. M., & Zorman, C. A. (2019). A New Class of Low-Temperature Plasma-Activated, Inorganic Salt-Based Particle-Free Inks for Inkjet Printing Metals. Advanced materials technologies, 4(8), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201900119
  90. Testa, V., Zannini, L., Iaia, M., Roncaglia, F., & Romagnoli, M. (2025). Investigations into 3D printing of conductive inks for electrode fabrication in PEM fuel cells using a design of experiments approach. Renewable energy, 255, 123833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2025.123833
  91. Van Osch, T. H. J., Perelaer, J., De Laat, A. W. M., & Schubert, U. S. (2008). Inkjet printing of narrow conductive tracks on untreated polymeric substrates. Advanced materials, 20(2), 343–345. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200701876
  92. Verma, D., Dubey, N., Yadav, A. K., Saraya, A., Sharma, R., & Solanki, P. R. (2024). Disposable paper-based screen-printed electrochemical immunoplatform for dual detection of esophageal cancer biomarkers in patients’ serum samples. Materials advances, 5(5), 2153–2168. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3ma00438d
  93. Verma, D., Yadav, A. K., Gupta, K. K., & Solanki, P. R. (2025). Sustainable synthesis of a PtNPs@rGO nanohybrid for detection of toxic fluoride ions using hand-made screen-printed electrodes in aqueous medium. Journal of materials chemistry B, 13(17), 5070–5084. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4tb02115k
  94. Wang, D. Y., Chang, Y., Wang, Y. X., Zhang, Q., & Yang, Z. G. (2016). Green water-based silver nanoplate conductive ink for flexible printed circuit. Materials technology, 31(1), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1179/1753555715Y.0000000023
  95. Wang, P., Wang, M., Zhou, F., Yang, G., Qu, L., & Miao, X. (2017). Development of a paper-based, inexpensive, and disposable electrochemical sensing platform for nitrite detection. Electrochemistry communications, 81, 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2017.06.006
  96. Wang, K., Pei, L., & Liu, H. (2025). A point-of-care electrochemical DNA sensor for rapid and sensitive detection of human papillomavirus type 18. International journal of electrochemical science , 20(8), 101074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijoes.2025.101074
  97. Warren, H., Gately, R. D., Moffat, H. N., & In Het Panhuis, M. (2013). Conducting carbon nanofibre networks: Dispersion optimisation, evaporative casting and direct writing. RSC advances, 3(44), 21936–21942. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra43743d
  98. Wijshoff, H. (2010). The dynamics of the piezo inkjet printhead operation. Physics reports, 491(4–5), 77–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2010.03.003
  99. Zea, M., Moya, A., Fritsch, M., Ramon, E., Villa, R., & Gabriel, G. (2019). Enhanced Performance Stability of Iridium Oxide-Based pH Sensors Fabricated on Rough Inkjet-Printed Platinum. ACS Applied materials and interfaces, 11(16), 15160–15169. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b03085
  100. Zea, M., Moya, A., Villa, R., & Gabriel, G. (2022). Reliable Paper Surface Treatments for the Development of Inkjet-Printed Electrochemical Sensors. Advanced materials interfaces, 9(21), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202200371
  101. Zhang, P., Sun, Q., Fang, S., Guo, H., Liu, K., Zhang, L., Zhu, Q., & Wang, M. (2025). Fabrication of Nano Copper Highly Conductive and Flexible Printed Electronics by Direct Ink Writing. ACS applied materials and interfaces, 17(1), 1847–1860. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.4c14225
  102. Zhang, R., & Sun, T. (2024). Ink-based additive manufacturing for electrochemical applications. Heliyon, 10(12), e33023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33023
  103. Zhu, Z., Lu, H., Zhao, W., tuerxunjiang, A., & Chang, X. (2023). Materials, performances and applications of electric heating films. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 184, 113540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113540